La simulation pour l'appui aux organisations �conomiques de base

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P. Deshayes
Centre International pour l'Education Permanenk et l'am�nagement Concert�, Montpellier

Abstract

Simulation techniques to assist economic organisation at the village level

Participative methods are the most appropriate tools for discussions of projects with villagers but always required more time for implementation than directive methods. Their benefits, however, are obvious, farmers and villagers being much more enthusiastic and interested when communications and contacts with developers have been established, particularly using the SIGESCO method: Simulation of management and accounting. Real case studies are used in training and meetings with villagers. They are presented in such a way that villagers can participate and play an active rote. Teaching materials are available for topics including management of village mills, management of food security by farmers' associations, management of stored seeds, and vegetable production planning.

La m�thode SICESCO a �t� mise au point par le CIEPAC et le GRDR en 1989, pour l'appui aux organisations �conomiques de base.

Elle permet:

- d'aider les gestionnaires � pr�parer leur projet d ' entre prise,

- de former les responsables � la gestion de l'entreprise,

- d'aider les responsables � auto-�valuer et � rechercher des voies d'am�lioration de leur entreprise,

- de faciliter le travail de diagnostic et de d�couverte d�taill�e des strat�gies de gestion, par les techniciens ou chercheurs, - de mieux communiquer avec les acteurs peu ou pas alphab�tis�s de l'entreprise.

Les principes de base de la m�thode SIGESCO:

- favoriser l'implication maximum des acteurs de l'organisation professionnelle � toutes les phases de l'action (recherche-action, formation, suivi-�valuation ...);

- permettre une r�elle communication � l'int�rieur des organisations �conomiques de base (paysannes ou autres) et avec leurs partenaires ext�rieurs;

- consid�rer les atouts, contraintes et objectifs autant �conomiques et financiers que socio-politiques, dans l'analyse et l'aide � la d�cision;

- travailler autant sur les savoir faire concrets que sur les connaissances th�oriques.

Plus concr�tement, en formation cela implique de travailler sur des cas les plus proches possibles des r�alit�s locales et non sur des exercices abstraits, et de se baser sur des exercices visuels, voire v�cus, et non seulement formul�s par �crit, de fa�on � rendre la formation plus vivante.

Dans le cas de l'aide � la d�cision, l'implication des d�cideurs (souvent peu ou pas alphab�tis�s) n�cessitera l'utilisation de supports visuels suffisamment explicites pour repr�senter des r�alit�s, des fonctionnements plus ou moins complexes. Ces supports doivent permettre la pr�sentation du d�tail tant qualitatif que quantitatif.

La technique p�dagogique de base utilis�e pour r�ussir � mettre en oeuvre ces principe et atteindre nos objectifs, ci-avant pr�sent�s, est la simulation.

Simuler une activit� �conomique pass�e ou future, c'est repr�senter son d�roulement concret le temps d'une r�union ou d'une session

La simulation peut avoir la forme d'une mise en sc�ne, � travers un jeu de r�le. La simulation peut aussi �tre une simple repr�sentation externe (non mise en sc�ne) gr�ce � un tableau, un ordinateur, ou un pr�sentoir SIGESCO (pour les analphab�tes).

La simulation par jeu de r�le pour la formation:

- Chaque participant tient un r�le: membre, gestionnaire, dirigeant ou partenaire de l'organisation �conomique.

- Le fonctionnement est alors simul�, les flux sont mat�rialis�s gr�ce aux accessoires de la mallette p�dagogique: d'o� explicitation des probl�mes rencontr�s, discussion sur les parades ou solutions appliqu�s etc...

- Dans le cas d'un projet � venir, les stagiaires sont amen�s � se poser des questions tr�s pr�cises gr�ce � la simulation, qu'ils n'auraient pas pos�es dans une simple discussion. Ce n'est en effet bien souvent que lors de la mise en pratique que l'on d�tecte les probl�mes d'adaptation et d'appropriation des m�thodes et outils pr�vus au d�part.

La simulation est l'objet d'une exploitation p�dagogique

- Les situations rencontr�es, les probl�mes d�cel�s, les solutions propos�es par les stagiaires, doivent faire l'objet d'une exploitation. Des temps "hors simulation" sont donc pr�vus; ils permettent au formateur de synth�tiser les acquis de la simulation, de formaliser les solutions valables qui ont �t� trouv�es, d'effectuer des apports d'information ou d'outils nouveaux.

- Ces phases de formation plus formelles prennent tout leur sens car elles se r�f�rent � l'exp�rience concr�te et toute r�cente de la simulation.

- Un support piste de jeu pourra �tre utilis� dans les formations pour amener la situation que les stagiaires auront � r�soudre.

La simulation de type jeu de sc�ne peut aussi �tre utilis�e pour la pr�sentation de r�alit�s complexes.

- Exemple: la pr�sentation du fonctionnement de l'ensemble d'une fili�re commerciale � ses diff�rents acteurs sera facilit�e par la mise en sc�ne. A partir de cette mise en sc�ne, les acteurs pr�sents pourront mieux appr�hender les enjeux d'une modification � l'un ou l'autre des niveaux.

La simulation par repr�sentation externe au pr�sentoir permettra les restitutions d'information et l'aide � la d�cision en gestion.

- Un pr�sentoir permet de disposer des figures (repr�sentant des libell�s de mouvements) et des images de billets (permettant le d�compte des sommes). Ce pr�sentoir peut donner lieu � des multiples variantes de son utilisation:

• restitution et contr�le des comptes de caisse,
• restitution des comptes de fin de campagne (bilan, compte d'exploitation),
• pr�sentation de pr�visions �conomiques et financi�res (budget, co�t de revient, plan de tr�sorerie).

- D'autres formes de pr�sentoirs pourront �tre utilis�es pour d'autres domaines. Exemple pour la planification mara�ch�re, on utilise des calendriers muraux � tirettes (repr�sentant les cycles de culture)...

Les int�r�ts de la m�thode SIGESCO

Pour appliquer la m�thode SIGESCO dans diff�rents domaines d'activit�s et diff�rents contextes, le CIEPAC et le GRDR ont d�j� �labor� plusieurs mallettes p�dagogiques. Certaines de ces mallettes ont �t� �labor�es sp�cifiquement pour des projets de d�veloppement r�gionaux, d'autres, par contre, ont une vocation grand public.

Des mallettes � vocation sp�cifique ont �t� �labor�es sur les th�mes suivants:

- "gestion de la s�curit� alimentaire dans les associations de base de producteurs au S�n�gal Oriental"
Cette mallette, con�ue � la demande de la Sodefitex (en 1990), a �t� multipli�e en 8 exemplaires pour �tre utilis�e par ses agents animateurs

- "gestion des minoteries villageoises dons les ABP au S�n�gal Oriental". Cette mallette a �galement �t� con�ue � la demande de la Sodefitex ( 1990)

- "gestion des magasins semenciers villageois ou S�n�gal

Cette mallette a �t� conque � la demande du Projet Autonome Semencier (Minist�re du D�veloppement Rural du S�n�gal) (1992). 20 mallettes ont �t� vulgaris�es aupr�s des superviseurs d�partementaux du PAS

- "gestion des GIE p�che en Casamance" Mallette en cours de conception � la demande de l'ENDA.

- "aide � la d�cision pour la planification mara�ch�re en Casamance" 18 mallettes sont utilis�es par des animateurs d'organisations paysannes en Casamance depuis 1992. Une partie de ces mallettes a �t� r�alis�e � la demande du PAARZ (projet GTZ).

Des mallettes � vocation grand public sont en cours de finalisation:

- "la gestion des banques de c�r�ales" Cette mallette sera diffus�e dans les diff�rents pays sah�liens � partir de d�but 1993.

- "I'entreprise mara�ch�re: gestion de l'entreprise, commercialisation (et fli�res) et planification culturale..."

Cette mallette, dont la conception a d�but� en 1991, sera diffus�e � partir de fin 1993.

Comparaison de la m�thode SIGESCO avec les m�thodes classiques de formation de paysans

En conclusion, ces mallettes SIGESCO sont actuellement tr�s demand�es par les techniciens de terrain souvant d�munis d'outils dans le domaines de la gestion participative. Par ailleurs, elles ont beaucoup de succ�s aupr�s des interlocuteurs villageois. Mais comme toutes les m�thodes participatives, elles demandent du temps. Les projets qui n'ont pas fait de l'appui en gestion une priorit� pour leurs agents n'auront le temps d'utiliser qu'une partie des potentialit�s de la mallette. Par ailleurs, l'exploitation optimum de cet outil ne sera possible que par des utilisateurs � la fois comp�tents en animation (p�dagogues) et en comptabilit�-gestion.

Introducing new products and processes through development assistance

Jonathan Counter
Natural Resources Institute, U.K.

R�sum�

L'adoption de nouveaux produits et proc�d�s gr�ce � I'aide au d�veloppement.

L'auteur cherche a expliquer pourquoi les projets finances par ['aide internationals et destines a am�liorer les syst�mes de commercialisation en d�veloppant de nouveaux produits et proc�d�s n'ont eu qu'un impact limit�.

Les risques commerciaux et les incertitudes politiques expliquent en partie le probl�me mais celui-ci r�sulte aussi de la r�ticence des d�veloppeurs a s'inspirer du secteur priv�, qui est le principal d�tenteur de l'expertise dans ce domaine. Le processus de transfert des connaissances est rendu difficile par la distance qui existe entre les convictions et les directives op�rationnelles des d�veloppeurs d'une part, et du secteur priv� d'autre part.

Pour r�soudre le probl�me, les organismes donateurs et de contrepartie engages dans ces activit�s devraient chercher i am�liorer leurs relations avec le secteur priv�. Cela peut se faire par un recrutement et une formation appropri�s du personnel, en particulier au niveau des d�cideurs. Des mesures compl�mentaires vent aussi recommand�es: �tre plus s�lectif quant aux projets et institutions a soutenir; faire avec soin mais pragmatisme le choix des b�n�ficiaires a atteindre par le transfert de technologies, minimiser les risques d'�checs par une d�marche s�quentielle du d�veloppement du produit, utiliser les services de recherche du priv� lorsqu'ils existent.

Why develop new products and processes?

Here we refer to product and process development activities as 'NPD', which is the abbreviation normally used by commercial market research practitioners for 'new product development'. NPD is one of several alternative ways of improving the marketing of crops, fishery and forestry products (see Box 1), and has been subject to considerable effort on the part of the Natural Resources Institute and other organizations represented in GASGA.

NPD can be a way of removing post-harvest constraints on the utilisation of resources which are in oversupply and are consequently underutilised or which have low-value uses. The following are examples of this case:

- Pelagic fisheries on the Pacific Coast of Latin America, which are mainly converted into fish-meal, but which can help resolve nutritional problems in the countries concerned;

- Processing wastes such as rice husks or sawdusts which are largely wasted but can be used as energy sources, building materials, and in other uses;

- Molasses in certain countries, where attempts have been made to utilise them in animal feed supplements, as blocks or liquid feeds.

Box 1 Alternative approaches to marketing improvement

1 With existing products and processes:

1.1 Improve marketing efficiency by

- Eliminating restrictions on trade
- Reducing trading margins
- Improving customer service through better packaging, distribution, after-sales service, etc.
- Improving quality
- Increasing shelf life etc.

1.2 Develop new market segments

2 Develop and market new products and processes (NPD)

It can be a way of increasing the demand for African food crops which are well suited to semi-arid environments but which in their raw and unprocessed form are not in demand with consumers. This reasoning lies behind attempts to make new products from small grains (sorghum, millet etc.) in Africa, as substitutes for maize or the often-imported rice; or the attempt to make tempe in Indonesia from a mixture of soybeans and pigeon-peas.

NPD differs from other developmental activities in being highly speculative, as it is difficult to foresee the outputs, i.e. the results which may stem from it. During the 1980s 80% of new food and beverage product launches in the USA resulted in failure, i.e. they were no longer on the grocery shelves 12 months after launch (source: EFO Ltd. Weston, Conn.).

Developing country markets are often more promising in view of the small number of commercial marketers and the many unexploited opportunities which still exist. However there are substantial political risks; the commercial implementation of certain economically desirable technologies is critically dependent on policy decisions which may never be taken, or which may suddenly occur in an unforeseen fashion. In Nigeria, there was no progress in composite flour manufacture or in the use of sorghum in brewing until structural adjustment and the banning of wheat and barley imports produced a favourable climate for these changes. Overall, we may describe NPD in developing countries as a high risk activity with potentially high economic returns, calling for sustained support over a period of years, and a willingness to try different products and formulations.

NPD in the context of development assistance

Given limited private R&D capacity in developing countries, NPD is a legitimate activity for support through development assistance. Indeed one often finds large businesses with hundreds of employees but with no research staff at all. Apart from being profitable to local companies and their employees, the introduction of new products and processes frequently has externalities benefiting the community at large.

When NPD is carried out under development assistance, the typical scenario is a collaborative arrangement between public sector or academic institutions in the donor and the host country. The arrangement usually provides for technical assistance, training, provision of laboratory equipment, pilot plant, vehicles and other inputs. When products or processes have to be introduced onto the market-place, assistance will usually be provided to a parastatal company or to some target group which the host Government considers worthy of and needing assistance. In this way small farmers, landless labourers, or women are likely to be organised into groups or cooperatives as viable entities which can benefit from the outside assistance. Sometimes small traders are targeted for assistance.

While there is much effort to target technologies on social grounds, there is often little attempt to identify which businesses or entrepreneurs have the ability or vocation to engage in the activity concerned.

Despite the considerable effort which goes into these projects success tends to be limited. One frequently sees projects which drag on for years, with large donor subsidies, and whose products achieve little in the way of market penetration. In part this is a consequence of the inherent riskiness of product development, but it is also I believe due to the lack of the requisite mix of skills and capabilities. These are largely the preserve of private sector companies, particularly:

- Market research - consumer and industrial
- Production capability
- Physical distribution
- Advertising, consumer education

Under development assistance, NPD is often carried out in a circle which excludes private sector participants who have much to contribute to the process (see Fig. 1). This problem can be illustrated in the case of market research services. If market research is carried out at all, it will generally be done by a local university or technical research institute, with no attempt to ascertain the availability of private sector services. Indeed only recently have developers started to become aware of private sector approaches, with the formation of an International Committee for Development Market Research and the publication of a training manual (Epstein, Gruber and Mytton, 1991).

Introducing private sector approaches

Attempts to change this situation and introduce private sector approaches or services sometimes run into difficulties, because of a clash with certain beliefs held and guidelines followed in development assistance community. This is illustrated in Box 2.

The information in Box 2 does not imply judgement on the development institutions or private parties concerned, just that their beliefs and operating guidelines have developed in response to different working environments and needs. The beliefs and guidelines of development assistance reflect the needs of the dominant aid-funded activities i.e. disaster relief, poverty alleviation, public health, pre-harvest agriculture etc., and infrastructure. The following disciplines tend to be dominant in the organizations concerned: Agriculture, economics, sociology, engineering, and medicine, but not business, accounting or marketing. This seriously limits their ability to relate to or make good use of the skills of the private sector.

Fig 1 An NPD process adapted for a development project

There is additionally the problem that private manufactures and traders are often in disfavour because they belong to foreign ethnic groups (Indian, Lebanese, Chinese, European etc.) or a commercially dominant tribe, widely believed to be exploiting the local populace.

Contrasting approaches to targeting

The contrast between private sector and developmental approaches is most pronounced when it comes to targeting NPD at particular groups of beneficiaries or particular kinds of enterprise. In one African country, NRI was assisting with technologies to make better use of sorghum products. To make optimal use of the private sector capabilities, NRI recommended systematic research to identify the miller (or millers) most interested in the product and capable of marketing it successfully, taking account of financial resources, relevant experience, manufacturing capacity, distribution systems, reputation, reliability etc.. This was not acceptable to the local research institute, which had already opted for a particular individual without a milling background in a sorghum growing zone which it wished to develop.

In another assignment NRI was required to advise a research institute on the commercial development of animal feed products which it had been manufacturing and 'test marketing' for the previous six years. As the institute concerned lacked administrative flexibility and commercial acumen, supplies were continually interrupted and selling efforts were feeble. Sales remained at a low level, and the operation could only continue on account of an implicit subsidy through the use of donated equipment

Box 2 - Contrasting developmental and private sector perspectives

Again commercial considerations called for a systematic search for the entrepreneur or company with the interest, resources and moral qualities to turn the activity into a successful business venture. However this was not in line with the thinking of the research institution which wanted to continue marketing the products itself. Commercial considerations also dictated that in the early stages of business expansion, products should be targeted at larger farmers or at particular pert-urban milk producing areas so as to maximise demand and ensure financial viability. Contrary to this it was decided, in a second phase of the project, to distribute the products through Government-sponsored cooperatives. This approach was attractive to the donor because it allowed for the benefits from the innovation to be widely distributed among farmers. However this risked financial viability, without which there would be no benefits at all.

Contrasting views of sustainability

The animal feeding example above illustrates the different way in which 'sustainability' is understood in development assistance circles on the one hand and the private sector on the other. Most donor organizations demand that project design makes provision for project sustainability, but in practice, the donor can exercise considerable discretion in emphasising or de-emphasising this criterion. In many cases the pressure to continue funding, for diplomatic or bureaucratic reasons, means that 'sustainability' becomes a dead letter.

In the private sector, financial sustainability is a matter of survival. Test-marketing has to be carried out quickly, three months being typical in the case of a fast-moving consumer good, while somewhat longer may be needed for an agricultural input Test-marketing of a product for six years would bankrupt most businesses.

The decision to proceed to a second phase, involving cooperatives, throws a whole new light on the concept of sustainability. The first phase provided no evidence that the activity was financially sustainable. The design of the second phase does not consider the pros and cons of different types of business enterprise, with a view to assuring sustainability, but opts for the cooperatives on grounds of social equity and acceptability to the host Government. Here the most sustainable activity is the development assistance itself, which continues regardless of evidence of past project success or a convincing design for the new project.

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